Overview and teacher commentary will appear here.
Prototyping spans low-fidelity sketches through to CAD virtual models and rapid-prototyped physical artefacts. These notes cover drawing conventions, fidelity levels, physical and virtual prototyping, and the three principal rapid prototyping technologies. They supplement your classroom materials and textbook; they are not a substitute for them.
Students must be able toExplain the advantages and disadvantages of using low- and high-fidelity prototyping within a design process.
Fidelity describes how closely a prototype resembles the finished product in appearance, materials and functionality. In iterative design, both extremes are used at different stages — not because one is better, but because each is right for a different purpose.
Low-fidelity prototypes are simple, fast and cheap representations of a design idea. Pencil sketches, rough cardboard mockups, paper wireframes and foam block models all qualify. The defining quality is that they are quick to make and easy to change.
- Advantages: Cost-efficient and rapidly fabricated; easy to modify or discard without regret; encourage experimentation because there is little investment in any single version; accessible to team members without specialist fabrication skills.
- Disadvantages: Lack precision and full functionality; users may struggle to evaluate real usability or give meaningful feedback on a rough sketch; cannot test performance, structural integrity or sensory qualities like weight and texture.
High-fidelity prototypes are crafted to look and function as closely as possible to the finished product — incorporating accurate aesthetics, realistic materials and working interactivity. They are built late in the design process, once key decisions have already been tested at lower fidelity.
- Advantages: Allow testing of the complete design in authentic contexts; user feedback is more meaningful because the experience is realistic; can be used for stakeholder presentations, investor demonstrations and final usability studies.
- Disadvantages: Significant time investment and specialist technical skills required; expensive to produce; changes at this stage are costly, which is why low-fidelity testing must happen first.
保真度描述原型在外观、材料和功能上与最终产品的接近程度。在迭代设计中，两种极端都会在不同阶段使用——并非因为其中一种更好，而是因为每种在不同目的下各有所长。
低保真原型是简单、快速且廉价的设计想法呈现方式。铅笔草图、粗糙的纸板模型、纸质线框图和泡沫积木模型都属于此类。其核心特质是制作快速、易于修改。
- 优点：成本低廉，制作速度快；易于修改或丢弃而无需惋惜；鼓励实验，因为对任何单一版本的投入都很少；不需要专业制作技能，团队成员均可参与。
- 缺点：缺乏精确性和完整功能；用户可能难以对粗略草图做出有意义的可用性评价；无法测试性能、结构完整性或重量、质感等感官特性。
高保真原型被精心制作，在外观和功能上尽可能接近最终产品——包含精确的美学细节、真实材料和可运作的交互性。它们在设计过程的后期制作，此时关键决策已通过较低保真度的测试得到验证。
- 优点：允许在真实情境中测试完整设计；用户反馈更有意义，因为体验更接近真实；可用于利益相关者展示、投资者演示和最终可用性研究。
- 缺点：需要大量时间投入和专业技术技能；生产成本高昂；此阶段的修改代价高昂——这也是为什么低保真测试必须先行进行。
Students must be able toOutline why designers use drawings to explore, refine and communicate ideas — including free-hand sketching, isometric, orthographic projection and exploded drawings — and the advantages and disadvantages of informal and formal drawing processes.
Drawings serve different purposes at different stages of design. An early sketch is a thinking tool — fast, disposable, used to externalise an idea so it can be evaluated and changed. A final engineering drawing is a communication tool — precise, standardised, used to instruct manufacturers exactly what to build. The choice of drawing type should match the purpose.
Freehand sketching — Quick pencil drawings used to explore ideas rapidly. No rulers or precision required. Advantages: fast, cheap, requires no equipment; encourages creative exploration. Disadvantages: imprecise; difficult for others to interpret without explanation; cannot convey exact dimensions or materials.
Isometric drawing — A three-dimensional pictorial style in which all three axes are drawn at 120° to each other, and measurements along all three axes are kept to the same scale. Objects appear in realistic proportion but without perspective distortion — near and far features receive equal visual weight. Used for: product presentations, workshop assembly manuals, patent illustrations. The consistent scale makes isometric drawings useful for instruction, since a component looks the same whether it is close or far from the viewer.
Orthographic projection (engineering drawing) — A formal, multi-view drawing showing the front, top and side of an object in 2D. Third-angle projection (used in the USA and UK) places the top view above the front view and the right-side view to the right. First-angle projection (used in Europe) arranges views differently. Orthographic drawings include precise dimensions, tolerances, material specifications and surface finish notes. Used for: workshop production drawings and manufacturing instructions — anything that must be built exactly as designed.
Exploded assembly drawings — A type of isometric or perspective drawing in which components are shown separated along their assembly axes, with lines indicating how they fit together. Used for: assembly instructions (furniture flat-packs), patent applications, service manuals.
Perspective drawing — Based on observation from a single viewpoint; objects appear smaller as they recede from the viewer, replicating natural visual experience. Used for: architectural visualisations and client presentations where realism matters more than dimensional accuracy.
图纸在设计的不同阶段服务于不同目的。早期草图是一种思维工具——快速、可抛弃，用于将想法外化，以便评估和修改。最终工程图纸是一种沟通工具——精确、标准化，用于向制造商准确说明需要制造什么。图纸类型的选择应与目的相匹配。
徒手草图——用于快速探索想法的铅笔画。无需直尺或精确工具。优点：快速、廉价、无需设备；鼓励创意探索。缺点：不精确；没有解释他人难以理解；无法传达精确尺寸或材料信息。
等轴测图——一种三维立体图样式，三个轴均以120°角绘制，且三个轴方向上的测量值保持相同比例。物体以真实比例呈现，但没有透视失真——近处和远处的特征获得同等的视觉权重。用于：产品展示、工厂装配手册、专利插图。一致的比例使等轴测图在说明书中非常有用，因为无论组件距观察者远近，其外观保持一致。
正交投影（工程图纸）——一种正式的多视图图纸，以二维方式显示物体的正面、顶面和侧面。第三角投影法（美国和英国使用）将顶视图置于正视图上方，将右侧视图置于右侧。第一角投影法（欧洲使用）的视图排列方式不同。正交图纸包含精确的尺寸、公差、材料规格和表面光洁度注释。用于：工厂生产图纸和制造说明——任何必须按设计精确制造的内容。
爆炸装配图——一种等轴测或透视图纸，其中各组件沿装配轴线分离显示，并用线条指示它们如何组合在一起。用于：装配说明（平板家具）、专利申请、维修手册。
透视图——基于单一视点的观察；物体随着远离观察者而显得更小，复现自然视觉体验。用于：建筑可视化和客户展示，此时真实感比尺寸精度更重要。
Students must be able toDiscuss the purpose of prototyping and how it is used in design and product development.
Prototyping is the creation of models — physical or digital — to test, refine and communicate design ideas before committing to final production. Its core purpose is to allow designers to fail quickly and cheaply: to identify problems at a stage when they are still inexpensive to fix, rather than discovering them after tooling, manufacturing investment or product launch.
Prototypes serve several overlapping functions:
- Exploration — Testing whether an idea is feasible at all. Early, rough prototypes are used to stress-test the concept before any detailed design work begins.
- Communication — Sharing an idea with team members, clients, investors or users who cannot read technical drawings. A physical model or interactive digital prototype makes an idea tangible to non-specialists.
- User testing — Putting a version of the product in front of real users to observe how they interact with it, identify pain points and gather feedback that feeds directly back into the design.
- Validation — Confirming that the design meets its specifications and user needs before manufacturing investment is committed.
The choice between physical and virtual prototyping is not binary — most professional design processes use both. Physical prototypes are better for testing tactile qualities, weight, ergonomics and real-world spatial relationships. Virtual prototypes are better for rapid iteration, performance simulation and sharing across locations without shipping a physical object.
原型制作是在投入最终生产之前，创建物理或数字模型以测试、完善和传达设计想法的过程。其核心目的是让设计师能够快速、低成本地失败：在修复问题仍然廉价的阶段识别问题，而不是在工装、制造投入或产品发布之后才发现它们。
原型服务于几个相互重叠的功能：
- 探索——测试一个想法是否可行。早期、粗略的原型用于在任何详细设计工作开始之前对概念进行压力测试。
- 沟通——与无法阅读技术图纸的团队成员、客户、投资者或用户分享想法。物理模型或交互式数字原型使想法对非专业人士而言变得具体可感。
- 用户测试——将产品的某个版本置于真实用户面前，观察他们如何与之互动，识别痛点并收集直接反馈到设计中的意见。
- 验证——在投入制造之前，确认设计符合其规格和用户需求。
物理原型和虚拟原型之间的选择并非非此即彼——大多数专业设计流程两者兼用。物理原型更适合测试触感、重量、人体工程学和真实世界的空间关系。虚拟原型更适合快速迭代、性能模拟，以及无需邮寄实物即可跨地点共享。
Students must be able toExplain how and why designers use physical prototypes (including scale, aesthetics, materials, function and performance) to enhance development towards a final product.
Physical prototypes are three-dimensional, tangible objects that can be handled, tested and experienced directly. Their key advantage over drawings and digital models is tangibility: they can be physically picked up, assembled, operated and evaluated from any angle. Dyson famously built over 5,000 physical prototypes of the DC08 vacuum cleaner — many from cardboard — before reaching a manufacturable design. This iterative physical process revealed ergonomic and functional problems that no drawing or simulation would have identified.
Physical prototypes are built to test specific dimensions of a design:
- Scale models — Built at a fraction of the final size (e.g., 1:10 or 1:100) when the product is too large to prototype full-size. Useful for testing spatial relationships and proportions. Limitation: does not test the real feel, weight or material performance of the final object.
- Aesthetic models — Accurate in appearance but not necessarily functional. Used for visual evaluation, stakeholder presentations and photography. Clay, foam and resin are common materials.
- Functional prototypes — Built to test whether the product actually works as intended, even if it does not look like the final product. May use off-the-shelf components, rough materials or simplified mechanisms. Focus is on performance, not appearance.
- Full-scale working prototypes — Combine accurate aesthetics and full functionality. Used for final user testing, safety testing and regulatory approval before mass production.
Common physical prototype materials include cardboard (fast, cheap, easy to cut), foam (shapeable without tools), clay or wax (for organic forms), wood (structural testing), and sheet metal or acrylic (for functional mechanisms). The choice of material depends on what aspect of the design is being tested at that stage.
Disadvantages of physical prototypes: They are often time-consuming and expensive to fabricate; modifications may require complete reconstruction; they cannot easily simulate extreme conditions (crash loads, thermal stress) that a virtual model can.
物理原型是可以直接触摸、测试和体验的三维有形物体。相比图纸和数字模型，其关键优势在于可触性：可以从任意角度拿起、组装、操作和评估。戴森公司在达到可制造设计之前，据说为DC08吸尘器制作了超过5000个物理原型——许多是用纸板制成的。这一迭代的物理过程揭示了任何图纸或模拟都无法识别的人体工程学和功能性问题。
物理原型的构建是为了测试设计的特定维度：
- 比例模型——当产品过大无法制作全尺寸原型时，按最终尺寸的一定比例制作（如1:10或1:100）。适用于测试空间关系和比例。局限性：无法测试最终物体的真实手感、重量或材料性能。
- 美观模型——外观精确但不一定具有功能性。用于视觉评估、利益相关者展示和摄影。黏土、泡沫和树脂是常用材料。
- 功能原型——用于测试产品是否按预期实际运作，即使外观不像最终产品。可能使用现成组件、粗糙材料或简化机构。重点在于性能而非外观。
- 全尺寸工作原型——结合精确的美学效果和完整功能性。用于最终用户测试、安全测试和大规模生产前的监管审批。
常用物理原型材料包括纸板（快速、廉价、易于切割）、泡沫（无需工具即可塑形）、黏土或蜡（用于有机形态）、木材（结构测试）以及金属板或亚克力（用于功能机构）。材料的选择取决于该阶段正在测试设计的哪个方面。
物理原型的缺点：通常制作耗时且成本较高；修改可能需要完全重建；无法轻松模拟虚拟模型可以处理的极端条件（碰撞载荷、热应力）。
Students must be able toExplain how and why designers use virtual prototypes, including surface and solid models, generative design, digital humans, motion capture, haptic technology, VR/AR, and finite element analysis (FEA).
CAD (computer-aided design) software creates virtual prototypes — digital models that can be tested, modified, shared and simulated without building anything physical. Virtual prototypes can be iterated far more rapidly than physical ones: a designer can test twenty variations of an armrest height in an afternoon, whereas building twenty physical prototypes would take weeks.
CAD models take two main forms:
- Surface models — Define only the outer shell of an object. Used for aesthetic evaluation and visualisation. Cannot simulate structural behaviour.
- Solid models — Define the full geometry of an object including internal volume, mass and material properties. Can be used for stress analysis, manufacturing simulation and weight estimation.
Advanced virtual prototyping tools extend what CAD alone can achieve:
Digital humans — Biomechanical virtual human models that simulate how real bodies of different sizes, ages and capabilities move and react within a designed space or when using a product. Used for ergonomic testing without requiring a human participant — for example, checking that every 5th–95th percentile user can reach the controls in a vehicle cockpit.
Motion capture — Technology that records human movement (from sensors on a person's body) and maps that data onto a digital model. Used to analyse how users naturally interact with a product in motion: how they grip, reach, twist and fatigue. Feeds into both ergonomic and biomechanical analysis.
Haptic technology — Force feedback devices that allow users to feel simulated physical resistance through a controller or glove. A designer can "feel" how stiff a virtual door handle is, or how a surgical instrument pushes back against tissue — without building a physical prototype. Applications: surgical simulators, dental training, product ergonomic testing, and gaming controllers.
Virtual reality (VR) — Replaces the user's entire visual environment with an immersive simulated world. In design, VR allows users and stakeholders to walk through a building, operate a vehicle cockpit or test a product at full scale before anything is built. Removes spatial ambiguity that flat screens and scale models introduce.
Augmented reality (AR) — Overlays digital information or 3D models onto the real world as seen through a camera or headset. Used to visualise how a product would look in its intended environment (furniture in a room, signage on a wall) or to guide assembly and maintenance by overlaying instructions onto real components.
Finite element analysis (FEA) — Divides a virtual model into a mesh of thousands of small elements and uses mathematical equations to calculate how stress, strain, displacement and temperature distribute through the structure under applied loads. Regions that would fail or deform are highlighted by colour-coded mapping. Used to: test car body structures in crash simulations; analyse structural components for fatigue and failure; optimise material distribution so strength is maintained while minimising weight.
CAD（计算机辅助设计）软件创建虚拟原型——无需建造任何实物即可进行测试、修改、共享和模拟的数字模型。虚拟原型的迭代速度远快于物理原型：设计师可以在一个下午测试二十种扶手高度变体，而制作二十个物理原型则需要数周时间。
CAD模型主要有两种形式：
- 曲面模型——仅定义物体的外壳。用于美学评估和可视化。无法模拟结构行为。
- 实体模型——定义物体的完整几何形状，包括内部体积、质量和材料属性。可用于应力分析、制造模拟和重量估算。
先进的虚拟原型工具扩展了单纯CAD所能实现的功能：
数字人体——生物力学虚拟人体模型，模拟不同尺寸、年龄和能力的真实人体在设计空间内或使用产品时的移动和反应方式。无需真实参与者即可进行人体工程学测试——例如，检查每位第5至第95百分位用户能否触及车辆驾驶舱中的控件。
动作捕捉——记录人体运动（通过人体上的传感器）并将该数据映射到数字模型上的技术。用于分析用户在运动中自然与产品互动的方式：他们如何抓握、伸展、扭转和产生疲劳。为人体工程学和生物力学分析提供数据。
触觉技术——力反馈设备，允许用户通过控制器或手套感受模拟的物理阻力。设计师可以"感受"虚拟门把手有多硬，或手术器械对组织施加的反推力——无需制作物理原型。应用领域：手术模拟器、牙科培训、产品人体工程学测试和游戏控制器。
虚拟现实（VR）——将用户的整个视觉环境替换为沉浸式模拟世界。在设计中，VR允许用户和利益相关者在任何东西建造之前，以全尺寸漫步穿过建筑、操作车辆驾驶舱或测试产品。消除了平面屏幕和比例模型带来的空间模糊性。
增强现实（AR）——通过摄像头或头戴设备，在真实世界上叠加数字信息或3D模型。用于可视化产品在其预期环境中的外观（房间中的家具、墙上的标识），或通过在真实组件上叠加说明来指导装配和维护。
有限元分析（FEA）——将虚拟模型划分为由数千个小单元组成的网格，并使用数学方程计算在施加载荷下应力、应变、位移和温度在结构中的分布方式。可能失效或变形的区域通过彩色编码映射高亮显示。用于：在碰撞模拟中测试车身结构；分析结构构件的疲劳和失效；优化材料分布，在最小化重量的同时保持强度。
Students must be able toDescribe the advantages and disadvantages of rapid prototyping techniques, including stereolithography (SLA), fused deposition modelling (FDM) and selective laser sintering (SLS).
Rapid prototyping refers to additive manufacturing technologies — most commonly 3D printing — that build physical objects directly from CAD files by adding material layer by layer. The key advantage over traditional subtractive manufacturing (e.g., CNC milling, which removes material from a block) is speed and design freedom: complex geometries that would be impossible to machine can be printed in hours.
Three technologies are required knowledge for DP Design:
Stereolithography (SLA) — A UV laser (or LCD screen) cures liquid photopolymer resin layer by layer, with each cured layer typically 0.05–0.15 mm thick. The result is a smooth, high-detail model with no visible layer lines.
- Advantages: Excellent surface quality and fine detail; capable of complex geometries; the smoothest finish of the three technologies.
- Disadvantages: High equipment and material cost; printed parts are brittle and lack structural strength; parts require post-production washing and UV curing; liquid resin is a hazardous material.
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) — A heated nozzle melts a thermoplastic filament and deposits it onto a build plate in successive layers, building up the model from the base. The most widely available 3D printing technology; used in desktop printers and large professional machines alike.
- Advantages: Lower cost than SLA or SLS; wide range of filament materials available (ABS, PLA, Nylon, Polycarbonate, flexible TPU); fast printing; functional parts can match injection-moulded strength in some materials.
- Disadvantages: Visible layer lines reduce surface quality; support structures are required for overhanging geometry and must be removed post-print; less dimensional accuracy than SLA.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) — A CO₂ laser sinters (fuses without fully melting) heat-fusible powder — typically nylon — layer by layer. After each layer is sintered, a roller spreads a fresh layer of powder over the build area. The surrounding unsintered powder acts as a natural support structure.
- Advantages: No support structures needed — allows complex geometries including interlocking or moving parts printed in a single build; high mechanical strength; unsintered powder can be recycled.
- Disadvantages: High equipment cost; rougher surface finish than SLA; parts require time to cool slowly before removal (rapid cooling causes warping); limited to powder-based materials.
快速原型制作是指增材制造技术——最常见的是3D打印——通过逐层添加材料，直接从CAD文件构建物理物体。相比传统的减材制造（如数控铣削，从块材中去除材料），其关键优势在于速度和设计自由度：在加工中无法实现的复杂几何形状可以在数小时内打印完成。
DP设计必须掌握的三种技术：
立体光固化（SLA）——紫外线激光器（或LCD屏幕）逐层固化液态光敏树脂，每固化层通常厚0.05至0.15毫米。结果是表面光滑、细节丰富、无可见层纹的模型。
- 优点：出色的表面质量和精细细节；能够制作复杂几何形状；三种技术中表面效果最光滑。
- 缺点：设备和材料成本高；打印件易碎，缺乏结构强度；零件需要后处理清洗和紫外线固化；液态树脂是危险材料。
熔融沉积建模（FDM）——加热喷嘴熔化热塑性丝料，并将其逐层沉积在构建平台上，从底部向上构建模型。是应用最广泛的3D打印技术；桌面打印机和大型专业机器均有使用。
- 优点：成本低于SLA或SLS；可用丝料材料种类繁多（ABS、PLA、尼龙、聚碳酸酯、弹性TPU）；打印速度快；某些材料的功能性零件强度可与注塑成型件相当。
- 缺点：可见层纹降低表面质量；悬空几何结构需要支撑结构，打印后必须去除；尺寸精度低于SLA。
选择性激光烧结（SLS）——CO₂激光器逐层烧结（无需完全熔化即可融合）可热熔粉末——通常是尼龙。每层烧结后，滚轮在构建区域上铺展新的粉末层。周围未烧结的粉末充当天然支撑结构。
- 优点：无需支撑结构——允许制作复杂几何形状，包括在单次构建中打印的联锁或活动零件；机械强度高；未烧结粉末可回收再利用。
- 缺点：设备成本高；表面光洁度不如SLA；零件在取出前需要缓慢冷却（快速冷却会导致翘曲）；仅限于粉末基材料。
Ten questions covering all six learning objectives. Select one answer per question, then click "Check all answers" to see your score and the explanations.
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Low-fidelity prototypes are simple, fast and cheap representations of a design idea — such as pencil sketches or cardboard models. Advantage: cost-efficient, rapidly fabricated and readily modifiable for iterative refinement. Disadvantage: they lack precision and full functionality, limiting the user feedback that can be gathered from them in realistic contexts.
High-fidelity prototypes are crafted to look and function as closely as possible to the finished product, incorporating accurate aesthetics, realistic materials and working interactivity. Advantage: allow the totality of the design to be tested with users in authentic contexts, producing meaningful feedback. Disadvantage: require significant time investment and specialised technical expertise; changes at this stage are expensive.
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1. Orthographic (engineering) drawing: Uses multiple 2D views — front, top and side — to show precise dimensions, tolerances and material specifications. Most appropriate for workshop or production drawings, because it provides manufacturers with the exact measurements they need to build the product correctly.
2. Isometric drawing: A 3D pictorial style where all three axes are drawn at equal 30° angles and all measurements are kept to the same scale. Most appropriate for assembly manuals, product presentations and patent illustrations, because near and far features receive equal visual weight — making component relationships clear without perspective distortion.
3. Perspective drawing: Based on observation from a single viewpoint; objects appear smaller as they recede. Most appropriate for architectural visualisations and client presentations, because it replicates natural visual experience and is intuitively understood by non-technical stakeholders.
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Physical prototypes are better suited for testing the feel of the adjustment mechanism. Tangibility is their core advantage: users can actually pull, press and grip the mechanism, reporting directly whether it requires too much force, feels awkward or is hard to locate by touch. This tactile feedback is essential for ergonomic evaluation and cannot be replicated fully in a digital environment.
Virtual prototypes with haptic technology could simulate some force feedback, but have limitations in replicating true tactile experience. However, virtual models excel at rapid iteration — a designer can test twenty armrest positions in an afternoon. Using digital human models, the team could also pre-screen options against the full 5th–95th percentile anthropometric range before building anything physical.
Best approach: Use virtual prototyping with digital humans first to narrow down the range of viable armrest heights based on anthropometric data. Then build a small set of physical prototypes representing the shortlisted options for actual user testing with representative participants. This balances the speed and range of virtual iteration with the authenticity of physical evaluation.
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FEA helps designers by simulating how an object reacts under service loads — stress, strain, displacement and temperature — before any physical prototype is built. The software divides a virtual model into a mesh of small elements and calculates the forces acting on each one. The output is colour-coded: regions where stress exceeds safe limits are highlighted, showing exactly where the design would fail or deform.
For safety: FEA can simulate car crash forces on a full vehicle body, revealing where crushing or buckling occurs and allowing engineers to add material or modify geometry in those zones before the design goes to production.
For durability: FEA can predict fatigue failure by repeatedly simulating service loads over a virtual lifespan — for example, analysing the stress concentration around a snap-fit mechanism that is clicked thousands of times, identifying whether it will crack before the end of the product's intended life.
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| Technology | Process summary | Advantage | Disadvantage |
|---|---|---|---|
| SLA | UV laser cures liquid photopolymer resin layer by layer (0.05–0.15 mm) | Excellent surface quality and fine detail; smoothest finish of the three | High cost; brittle parts; requires post-production washing and UV curing |
| FDM | Heated nozzle extrudes thermoplastic filament onto a build plate in layers | Lower cost; wide range of materials (ABS, PLA, Nylon, Polycarbonate); fast printing | Visible layer lines; support structures required for overhangs; lower dimensional accuracy |
| SLS | CO₂ laser sinters heat-fusible powder (typically nylon); unsintered powder acts as support | No support structures needed; can print moving parts in a single build; unsintered powder recyclable | High equipment cost; rougher surface finish than SLA; slow cooling required to prevent warping |
When to use each:
- SLA: Final aesthetic prototypes that require smooth, presentation-quality surfaces.
- FDM: Functional parts needing structural strength similar to injection-moulded components, where surface finish is secondary.
- SLS: Complex geometries with interlocking or moving parts where support structures would be impossible to remove.
Linking Questions
- What ergonomic aspects should be considered when selecting prototyping techniques? (A1.1)
- How are concept models used to generate user feedback in a UCD approach? (B1.1)
- Why are different prototyping techniques used as part of the design process? (B2.1)
- How does a good understanding of prototyping techniques help designers approach modelling and prototyping? (B2.2)
- How can prototyping techniques be used to evaluate the appropriateness of material selection? (B3.1)
- To what extent can virtual prototypes and simulations model real-world situations involving structural, mechanical and electronic systems? (B3.2) (B3.3) (B3.4)