Airbus's Bionic Partition
A cabin wall redesigned by an algorithm inspired by slime mould.
Read case study →The guiding question for this topic is about communication, and that framing is the important part. A model is not a small version of a product. It is an argument aimed at a particular person. A client wants to know whether it is worth funding, a user wants to know whether they would use it, a manufacturer wants dimensions and tolerances, and an engineer wants to know whether it will hold. Handing all four of them the same render is how good ideas die in meetings.
So the assessable skill in B2.2 is less "can you make a prototype" and more "can you choose the right one and say why", building directly on the fidelity ideas from A2.2. Finite element analysis is worth flagging, since it is the point where modelling stops describing appearance and starts predicting behaviour. Being able to break something a hundred times in software before building it once has quietly changed how much risk designers can afford to take. Your IA will ask you to model and to justify what each model was for, so get in the habit of naming the audience before you start building.
Students must be able toConstruct and interpret 2D drawings and 3D models, including isometric, orthographic projection, assembly and exploded drawings.
Drawings are the most fundamental form of design communication: they allow designers to share ideas with manufacturers, engineers, clients and users without requiring physical models. Different drawing types serve different audiences and purposes:
Isometric drawings
Isometric drawings present an object from a corner viewpoint using 30° angles for all horizontal edges. The name comes from the Greek "equal measurement" because true dimensions are preserved along all three axes. Three sides of the object are visible simultaneously, making isometric drawings well suited for presentations to audiences with limited technical training.
Computer games have made use of an isometric perspective for years, first as a way to 'cheat' and have a game with flat drawings appear 3D, and later as a stylistic choice. Older strategy games such as Starcraft and Age of Empires are good examples of using flat art assets to appear 3D (see the screenshot above) while Hades is a modern example of a game that actually uses 3D assets but retains the isometric perspective.
Orthographic projection
Orthographic projection presents multiple 2D views (typically front, top and side) each projected perpendicularly onto a plane. Together, the views communicate exact dimensions, tolerances and surface specifications. This is the standard for manufacturing and engineering, and most of the time enough measurements and views are available for someone to create an accurate model from a set of orthographic views. (See CAD vs CAD on YouTube for a particularly fun example of orthographic projections being modeled.)
Exploded drawings
Exploded drawings show how components separate along their assembly axes so the viewer can understand how parts fit together. One of the earliest known examples was created by Leonardo da Vinci around 1478–1480. (See it and more on the Wikipedia page for exploded views.) This type of drawing is particularly useful for understanding complex assemblies and ensuring that all parts are correctly positioned.
Assembly drawings
Assembly drawings show how multiple components come together into a functional system or assembled part. They typically include a Bill of Materials (BoM), a numbered list of every part, and linked to callout labels on the drawing. Lego provide assembly instructions, but each page could be used as a small example of this, since they include the 'bill of materials' for that page, along with the assembled drawings and visual callouts showing where each part goes.
Perspective renderings
Perspective renderings use one or more vanishing points to create a realistic sense of depth. They do not preserve true dimensions but communicate the overall appearance and feel of a product convincingly to non-technical clients and investors. They're also a great excuse to use way more colors in your work.
The dimensioning, tolerancing and scale conventions that make an orthographic drawing manufacturing-ready are covered in B2.1 The Design Process (2.1.14 Technical Drawings).
Students must be able toConstruct and interpret aesthetic and functional prototypes at different levels of fidelity, including the considerations of scale, shape and space.
Physical prototypes exist on a spectrum of fidelity: how closely they match the final product in appearance, materials and function. Choosing the right fidelity for each stage of development is a critical design decision.
Low-fidelity prototypes (cardboard, foam, tape, paper) are fast and cheap to build. They test core concepts, spatial relationships and rough proportions without committing to materials or manufacturing. Dyson famously used cardboard models extensively during development of the DC08 vacuum. The "fail fast, fail cheap" principle applies: expose problems early when changes cost almost nothing.
Medium-fidelity prototypes have more accurate shape and proportions and may include some working features, but often use substitute materials (e.g., 3D-printed plastic instead of die-cast aluminium). They provide a useful balance between cost and realism for user ergonomic testing and stakeholder review.
High-fidelity prototypes use final materials and, ideally, final manufacturing processes. They generate meaningful performance data (task completion rates, error rates, satisfaction scores) that earlier prototypes cannot. Changes at this stage are costly, so the concept must already be well-validated before investing here.
Prototypes are also categorised by purpose:
- Aesthetic prototypes: focus on look, feel, surface texture and visual identity; do not need to function
- Functional prototypes: demonstrate working mechanisms and performance; may not look like the final product
- Hybrid prototypes: combine both for comprehensive testing
Considerations of scale (is it 1:1 or reduced?), shape (are ergonomic dimensions accurate?) and space (does it fit its intended environment?) affect which prototype type is appropriate at each stage.
Prototyping fidelity and the specific techniques used to build each level are introduced from a broader design perspective in A2.2 Prototyping Techniques.
Students must be able toConstruct and interpret surface, solid and virtual models.
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) has become an integrated environment for ideation, refinement, simulation and communication. Rather than producing drawings alone, modern CAD platforms allow a single model to generate technical drawings, photorealistic renders, FEA simulations and manufacturing data.
CAD models fall into three main categories:
- Surface models represent only the outer "skin" of an object as a series of mathematically defined surfaces, without any enclosed volume. They are widely used for aerodynamic and organic shapes (automotive body panels, consumer electronics casings) where form and curvature quality are the primary concern. Surface models cannot directly calculate mass, volume or centre of gravity.
- Solid models contain both surfaces and enclosed volume. They can calculate weight, centre of gravity, moments of inertia, and material volume: all critical for engineering analysis. Solid models support manufacturing simulations such as mould-fill analysis and CNC toolpath generation. They also export directly to FEA software. Most parametric CAD tools (SOLIDWORKS, Fusion 360, Onshape) work primarily with solid models.
- Virtual models exist entirely in digital space but behave as if physical. They require the designer to set parameters for the model, such as what material a part is made with. They are analysed, tested and iterated without any physical materials. Combined with FEA and simulation software, virtual models allow designers to test failure modes, ergonomic fit and assembly sequences before any prototype is built.
Generative design is an emerging CAD approach in which the designer supplies constraints (load conditions, material, manufacturing method, weight targets) and an algorithm explores thousands of design permutations, often producing organic lattice structures that no human would draw intuitively, yet which meet all specifications at minimum material weight. Depending on your specific CAD program you might be able to try using this feature, but note that it isn't typically free, and that it isn't necessarily suitable for 3D printing applications.
Case Study
Students must be able toInterpret the output from FEA.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a computer simulation technique that predicts how a virtual model will behave under applied forces, heat, pressure or motion. The software divides the model into a mesh of small, simple elements (triangles or tetrahedra) and mathematically calculates stress, strain and displacement at every node in the mesh. Results are typically displayed as colour contour plots: regions under the highest stress appear red, low-stress regions appear blue.
Key failure modes FEA identifies:
- Yielding: the transition from elastic behaviour, where the material springs back once load is removed, to plastic behaviour, where the shape change becomes permanent. Most structural components must remain below their yield strength in service. A worked example is an FEA simulation of a mobile phone case dropped from 2 metres, where red regions mark the points at which the case would yield on impact.
- High-stress regions: localised areas of stress concentration around holes, sharp corners, thin sections or abrupt geometry changes. Designers resolve these by adding fillets, ribs or additional material thickness.
- Buckling: sudden structural instability under compressive load. Slender columns and thin-walled sections are particularly vulnerable; FEA predicts the critical buckling load before physical testing.
FEA allows designers to test and refine virtual models without building physical prototypes, significantly reducing development cost and time. However, results are only as reliable as the mesh quality, material data and boundary conditions: garbage in, garbage out.
One thing the colours will never tell you: an FEA result is only as good as what the analyst told it. Bolt this bracket at one hole instead of two, refine the mesh, or swap the material, and the same geometry returns a different answer. The software makes none of those choices, which is why "the simulation says it is fine" is a claim you should always ask questions about.
Students must be able toConstruct and interpret CAD models suitable for rapid prototyping.
Rapid prototyping uses digital CAD models to produce physical objects directly, without manual machining or tooling. The three principal additive manufacturing processes are:
- Stereolithography (SLA): an ultraviolet laser traces cross-sections of the model onto a vat of photosensitive resin, curing each layer. Produces very high surface quality and fine detail; widely used for aesthetic and dental/medical prototypes. Resin parts are typically brittle.
- Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM): a thermoplastic filament (PLA, ABS, PETG) is melted and extruded in successive layers. The most accessible and affordable process, available in desktop machines. (Note, all of our school machines are FDM machines). Layer lines are visible; surface quality is lower than SLA but functional parts are tougher.
- Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): a laser fuses powder (nylon, glass-filled nylon, metal) layer by layer. No support structures are needed because unfused powder supports the part during build. Produces durable functional prototypes with complex internal geometries; expensive and requires specialist equipment. Not yet something that can be done at home.
CAD model requirements for rapid prototyping: The model must be a watertight solid with no open surfaces, gaps or self-intersecting geometry. It is exported as an STL (stereolithography) file, which approximates curved surfaces as a mesh of triangles. Resolution (triangle count) must be high enough to preserve fine details. Wall thickness must meet minimum thresholds for the chosen process to avoid fragile or failed builds.
STEP, OBJ, and 3MF files may also be used, and offer additional features and compatibility. An example of meeting a minimum threshold is ensuring that model walls are thicker than the nozzle size on an FDM printer. For example, the machines we use at school have .4mm nozzles, so model walls must be at least 4mm thick, and in reality, they should be closer to 1mm to guarantee successful printing.
Key concept
STL Files and Mesh Resolution
An STL file (the name comes from "stereolithography", the process it was originally created for) describes a 3D shape using only flat triangles. A curved surface, such as a sphere or a fillet, has no exact triangular equivalent, so the STL format approximates it: the more triangles used, the closer the faceted surface gets to the true curve, at the cost of a larger file and longer processing time.
This is the same trade-off that governs the mesh used in FEA simulation: a coarse mesh (or a low-triangle-count STL) is fast to process but blurs fine geometric detail, while a fine mesh captures detail accurately but takes longer to compute or print. Designers choose resolution based on what the model needs to show: a low-poly STL is fine for a rough proportion check, but a part with delicate curved features needs a high-resolution export to print correctly.
Spotting a low-resolution STL
- Faceting: visible flat planes on what should be a smooth curve
- Lost detail: small features (text, fillets, thin ribs) disappearing or becoming distorted
- File size mismatch: a tiny file size for a geometrically complex part is a warning sign of under-resolved curves
SLA, FDM and SLS are explored in far more technical depth, including material properties and process limitations, in A4.1 Manufacturing Techniques.
Product Spotlight
Shaken Apart, on Purpose
A full-size building on the world's largest shake table, destroyed on purpose.
Read spotlight →Students must be able toSelect and use appropriate drawings, physical prototypes and CAD models to gather relevant data and feedback, which can be used to analyse and develop the design iteratively.
No single prototype type is right for every audience or purpose. Selecting the appropriate modelling tool for each stakeholder group is a core design skill:
- End users need to experience ergonomics, comfort and usability. Physical prototypes at appropriate fidelity (even rough foam) are more informative than drawings. Users generate qualitative feedback ("it feels too heavy") and quantitative data (task completion times, error counts).
- Clients respond to visual appearance and alignment with brief. High-quality perspective renderings, annotated CAD visualisations or aesthetic prototypes communicate brand identity and overall direction without requiring a functional model.
- Engineers need dimensional accuracy, material data and performance predictions. Orthographic drawings, solid CAD models and FEA outputs give engineers the information needed to evaluate feasibility and identify manufacturing risks.
- Manufacturers require production-ready technical drawings, tolerances, material specifications and assembly sequences. A bill of materials and detailed assembly drawing communicates everything needed to quote and produce the part.
The iterative process means feedback from one stakeholder group informs the next prototype. A user session revealing grip problems triggers a shape change; the new shape is validated with FEA before a revised physical prototype is built. Matching prototype type to audience and question (not defaulting to the highest fidelity available) is what makes iteration efficient.
Prototype Menu
Eight ways to prototype, and what each one is for
Hover, focus or tap a card for the full breakdown: purpose, audience and the data it actually gives you.
Ten questions covering drawing types, prototype fidelity, CAD modelling, FEA and rapid prototyping. Select one answer per question, then click "Check all answers" to see your score and the explanations.
Q1 · 2.2.1 Drawing Types
Which drawing style shows three faces of an object at once using 30 degree horizontal axes, keeping true dimensions along all three axes?
Isometric means equal measurement: nothing shrinks with distance, so a single image shows three faces without perspective distortion. That makes it readable by audiences without technical training, which is why it appears in presentations, patent illustrations and assembly manuals. A perspective rendering looks more realistic but no longer preserves true dimensions.
Q2 · 2.2.1 Drawing Types
A manufacturer needs to produce a replacement part and requires exact dimensions, tolerances and material specifications. Which drawing should they be sent?
Orthographic projection places front, top and side views perpendicular to their planes and carries the dimensions, tolerances and surface specifications production actually needs. The pictorial types communicate the idea convincingly but cannot be worked from, which is the point of matching the drawing to its audience.
Q3 · 2.2.2 Physical Prototypes
A designer builds a rough cardboard model to check the proportions and layout of a product. This is best described as:
Cardboard is a low-fidelity material and the question being asked is about form, proportion and space rather than whether anything works, so the prototype is aesthetic rather than functional. Dyson's cardboard models of the DC08 are the standard example of failing fast and cheaply before changes become expensive.
Q4 · 2.2.2 Physical Prototypes
A team wants users to grip and lift a new kitchen tool for feedback, but the shape is still being refined. The most appropriate prototype is:
Users must be able to hold and lift the object, so it has to function, but committing to final materials while the geometry is still moving would make every change expensive. Medium fidelity with substitute materials gives usable ergonomic feedback at a cost that still allows iteration.
Q5 · 2.2.3 CAD Models
Which statement correctly distinguishes surface models from solid models?
Because a surface model has nothing inside it, it cannot report mass, volume or centre of gravity, though it is excellent for the curvature quality of body panels and casings. A solid model encloses volume, which is what allows mass properties, mould-fill and toolpath simulation and direct export to FEA.
Q6 · 2.2.3 CAD Models
Airbus produced its bionic cabin partition by supplying an algorithm with the load case, material, mounting points and a weight target, then comparing the geometries it returned. This approach is:
In generative design the designer defines the problem and the software explores the geometry, here producing a branching lattice no one would have drawn by hand that met the same certification load at 45% less mass. FEA tests a shape you already have, whereas generative design uses that same stress analysis inside a loop to produce candidate shapes.
Q7 · 2.2.4 Finite Element Analysis
In an FEA result, yielding refers to the point at which:
Below the yield point the material springs back once the load is removed; above it a permanent set remains, which for most structural parts counts as failure even though nothing has broken. FEA also flags stress concentrations at holes and sharp corners, resolved with fillets, ribs or extra thickness, and predicts buckling in slender sections.
Q8 · 2.2.4 Finite Element Analysis
An FEA plot shows a bracket well within its limits. What is the strongest reason to treat this result with caution?
Fix the bracket at one bolt hole instead of two, refine the mesh or change the material, and the same geometry returns a different answer. The software makes none of those choices, so "the simulation says it is fine" is a claim that should always be followed by questions about the assumptions behind it.
Q9 · 2.2.5 Rapid Prototyping
Before a CAD model can be exported reliably for 3D printing, it must be:
An STL describes the shape as a mesh of flat triangles, so the model must enclose a volume cleanly for the slicer to know what is inside. Two further checks matter: enough triangles to keep curves and fine features from faceting away, and wall thicknesses above the minimum the process can build, which for a 0.4 mm FDM nozzle means around 1 mm in practice.
Q10 · 2.2.6 Prototypes & Feedback
A client meeting has been called to approve the visual direction of a product before any functional development begins. The most appropriate model to bring is:
Clients respond to appearance and to alignment with the brief, so a render or presentation model gathers exactly the reactions the meeting needs. Tolerance drawings and FEA outputs answer an engineer's or manufacturer's questions instead. Matching the model to the audience, rather than defaulting to the highest fidelity available, is what keeps iteration efficient.
Paper 2 structured questions require extended written responses. Use the sample answers and mark scheme notes to practise and self-assess.
Question 1 · 4 marks
Explain the difference between orthographic drawings and isometric drawings. Give one appropriate use for each.
Show example answer
Orthographic drawings show an object as a set of separate flat views, typically front, top and side, with each one projected straight onto its own plane at a right angle. All three views together communicate the exact three-dimensional form, with precise dimensions, tolerances and material specifications. The name reflects the perpendicular ("ortho") projection method. Orthographic drawings are most appropriate for manufacturers and engineers because they provide the dimensional accuracy and technical detail required for production.
Isometric drawings are a 3D pictorial style where an object is viewed from a corner, using 30° angles for all horizontal edges. The name comes from the Greek "equal measurement": actual dimensions are preserved along all three axes. Three sides of the object are visible simultaneously. Isometric drawings are most appropriate for presentations to clients and audiences with limited technical knowledge because they provide a recognisable sense of the object's form without perspective distortion.
Question 2 · 6 marks
Describe three different types of prototypes based on their purpose or audience. For each, explain what type of data it collects and who the target audience is.
Show example answer
1. Low-fidelity conceptual models (cardboard, foam, paper wireframes): Quick, simple representations used to explore early ideas and test basic proportions. The feedback gathered is mostly qualitative: how users react to the look and feel, first impressions of appearance, whether the idea reads clearly, and whether the basic layout works spatially. Target audience: the internal team and clients, who use these quick, low-cost models to iterate and agree on a shared direction before committing serious resources.
2. Functional prototypes (working versions using substitute materials or breadboard electronics): Demonstrate working mechanisms and performance at moderate fidelity. Data collected includes performance metrics (task completion rates, error frequency, reliability), technical data (tolerances, material behaviour under load), and user interaction data. Target audience: engineers and beta testers, who rely on these builds to confirm the design genuinely works and to catch hidden problems ahead of full-scale manufacturing.
3. High-fidelity aesthetic/visual prototypes (polished models using near-final materials, colours and finishes): Communicate intended appearance and brand identity. Data collected is largely qualitative: aesthetic feedback, emotional response, brand alignment and market appeal. Target audience: clients, marketing teams and investors to support funding pitches, promotional materials and strategic decision-making.
Question 3 · 5 marks
A design team is developing a new ergonomic computer mouse. They need to test hand fit, button click feel and surface texture. Compare the suitability of low-fidelity versus high-fidelity prototypes for this specific testing scenario.
Show example answer
Low-fidelity prototypes (carved foam, clay or rough 3D-printed shells) are fast and cheap to produce. They are well suited to testing basic hand fit and overall proportions because the team can iterate through many different shapes quickly. However, low-fidelity prototypes cannot accurately test button click feel (foam and clay do not replicate the tactile snap of a micro-switch) nor surface texture, because foam feels nothing like moulded plastic or a rubber grip. Users may give misleading feedback because the prototype does not match the sensory experience of the final product.
High-fidelity prototypes using final materials and manufacturing methods (for example injection-moulded ABS with the actual micro-switches and the intended soft rubber overmould) are ideal for testing click feel and texture because they exactly replicate the final product's tactile properties. However, high-fidelity prototypes are expensive and time-consuming to produce, and changes are difficult and costly.
Best approach: Use low-fidelity models to rapidly iterate on hand fit across many shape variations. Once the shape is validated, build a small number of high-fidelity prototypes with actual switches and final surface textures for a focused evaluation of click feel and grip texture. This phased strategy balances speed and cost at the exploration stage with accuracy at the validation stage.
Question 4 · 4 marks
Explain what Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is and how it helps designers improve product safety. Refer to the concept of "yielding" in your answer.
Show example answer
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a computer simulation technique that predicts how a virtual model will behave under applied forces, heat, pressure or motion. The software divides the model into a mesh of small elements and calculates stress, strain and displacement at every point, displaying results as colour contour plots: red indicates the highest stress, blue the lowest.
FEA improves product safety by identifying yielding before any physical prototype is built. Yielding marks the transition from elastic behaviour, where the material springs back to its original shape once load is removed, to plastic behaviour, where the shape change becomes permanent and stays even once the load is gone. For most structural components, yielding is unacceptable because the part will no longer function as intended.
For example, an FEA simulation of a mobile phone case dropped from 2 metres shows high-stress (red) regions at impact points. If calculated stress exceeds the material's yield strength in any region, the designer can add material, change the geometry (adding ribs or rounded fillets) or select a tougher material, all before investing in a physical prototype. This reduces both cost and safety risk.
Question 5 · 6 marks
Analyse how the choice of prototype fidelity (low, medium, high) affects resource allocation, user feedback quality and decision-making in product development. Use examples from the chapter.
Show example answer
Low-fidelity prototypes (cardboard, foam, paper) require minimal resources: hours to build, negligible material cost, and easy to discard. Dyson's extensive use of cardboard models during DC08 development is a clear example: cheap models allowed rapid iteration without financial risk. User feedback quality is limited to broad impressions of shape, proportion and concept direction. Detailed ergonomic data, surface texture evaluation or performance testing is not possible. Decision-making at this stage addresses broad questions: "Is this the right concept?" and "Which of these five approaches is worth developing further?"
Medium-fidelity prototypes have more accurate geometry and may include working features in substitute materials. Resource requirements are moderate: days to weeks and higher material costs. User feedback quality improves substantially: participants can evaluate grip comfort, basic usability and relative proportions meaningfully. Decision-making becomes more specific: "Does this button placement work for 5th–95th percentile users?"
High-fidelity prototypes use final materials and manufacturing methods. Resources are significant: weeks or months, tooling costs of thousands of dollars. User feedback quality is highest: participants experience exact look, weight, feel and performance. Task completion rates, error rates and satisfaction scores are now valid and comparable. Decision-making addresses launch readiness: "Does this product meet all specifications? Are we ready to commit to production tooling?"
The strategic insight is in the transition: explore broadly and cheaply with low fidelity, narrow down with medium fidelity, then validate precisely with high fidelity. This minimises total investment while maximising confidence at each decision point.
| Fidelity | Cost | Build time | Feedback quality | Key decision |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low | $ | Hours–days | Basic: concept, proportion | Right direction? |
| Medium | $$ | Days–weeks | Good: ergonomics, usability | Right form? |
| High | $$$ | Weeks–months | Excellent: full validation | Ready to launch? |
Sketching to perspective rendering, Eric Strebel
youtube.com/watch?v=0aKB1oZt8Y0
A working industrial designer takes a rough sketch through to a finished perspective rendering. Referenced in 2.2.1.
Solid modeling, Wikipedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_modeling
Constructive solid geometry, boundary representation and parametric modelling, and where surface modelling with NURBS is used instead. Background for the CAD in 2.2.3.
Finite element method, Wikipedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_method
What the mesh is and what the solver is actually doing when FEA produces a colour stress plot. Technical, so read it for the concepts rather than the mathematics.
Dyson product development, Misterrolls
youtube.com/watch?v=f1dFyj1QzG0&t=135s
Inside Dyson’s development process, including the low fidelity cardboard models referenced in the chapter. The point is how fast and how rough the early prototypes are, and how many of them there were before anything looked like a product.
Onshape learning centre
learn.onshape.com
Free structured CAD courses that run in the browser. A sensible route into parametric modelling if you have no CAD experience.
Blueprint Reading, Mark Lorier
wtcs.pressbooks.pub/blueprintreading
A full open textbook on reading technical drawings, free online. Go here for assembly drawings, sections and tolerancing in more depth than 2.2.1 covers.
Drawing basics: isometric drawing, Design Journal SOS
designjournalsos.blogspot.com/2013/01/drawing-basic…
A design and technology teacher’s worked visual examples of isometric drawing. Referenced in 2.2.1.
Linking Questions
- When creating physical prototypes, which ergonomic considerations should be taken into account? (A1.1)
- To what extent are user-centred research strategies useful to gather feedback on models and prototypes of proposed design solutions? (A2.1)
- How do designers use their knowledge of prototyping techniques to ensure effective modelling and prototyping? (A2.2)
- Which aspects of material properties can be explored through modelling? (A3.1)
- How can information about a proposed structural system be gathered using CAD modelling? (A3.2) (B3.2)
- How effectively can mechanical systems be mocked up and tested using modelling and prototyping? (A3.3) (B3.3)
- How can effective electronic systems be modelled virtually? (A3.4) (B3.4)
- How does the development of prototypes inform the choice of manufacturing techniques and production systems? (A4.1) (B4.1)
- How can modelling and prototyping be used to inform the development of a product following a UCD strategy? (B1.1)
- To what extent can the same materials used for modelling and prototyping be used in the material selection of a commercial product? (B3.1)
Case Study: Airbus's Bionic Partition
Airbus needed to replace a cabin partition on their A320 aircraft. This is the wall which separates economy seats from the galley. Rather than sketching a shape and checking it against that load in FEA, Airbus's design team gave a generative design algorithm the load case, the material, the mounting points and a maximum weight, then let it explore. The algorithm reportedly generated well over a thousand candidate geometries.
The winning shape looks nothing like a wall a person would draw: a lattice of branching, organic struts that resembles bone structure or the growth pattern of slime mould, because the algorithm was, in effect, solving the same problem biology has already solved many times over, put material only where load actually needs to travel. Manufactured by 3D printing in titanium, the finished partition weighs 45% less than the original design while passing the identical certification load tests. Airbus estimated that fitting every A320 in its fleet with this design would save hundreds of thousands of tonnes of CO2 emissions a year, purely from carrying less weight. Read more: Pioneering bionic 3D printing - Airbus
Product Spotlight: Shaken Apart, on Purpose
Most seismic engineering leans on small-scale models and computer simulation, because building and then destroying a full-size structure is expensive. E-Defense, a research facility in Miki, Japan, built after the 1995 Kobe earthquake exposed how much standard building codes still got wrong, does the opposite. Engineers can bolt a complete, realistically-built structure, like a full-scale house, apartment block, or office building onto the world's largest shake table. They are able to reproduce the exact ground motion recorded during a real earthquake at full intensity until the structure is damaged or collapses.
Every test structure is has with hundreds of sensors installed that record exactly how forces travel through the building. They can show precisely where and when a beam, joint or wall gives way. This is the kind of failure sequence that a small-scale model or a simulation can only estimate. Footage of a full-size building crumpling floor by floor, filmed head-on and shared widely after each major test, has repeatedly challenged assumptions baked into existing seismic codes, and led to revised standards for joints, base isolation and retrofits. The same logic applies to any destructive prototype test. Breaking a full-scale, realistic version of something on purpose teaches you something a survived test never could, whether it's a product or a building.